O'Brien and Szeman Critical Insight Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

O'Brien and Szeman Critical Insight - Essay Example O’Brien and Szeman The concepts of O’Brien and Szeman show that there is a direct correlation between cultural expressions and the new possibilities within contemporary art. This begins with the understanding of techniques that are used with art and how this is beginning to transform. The first concept is related to ideas of language. In popular culture, this is beginning to transform, break down and alter into new expressions and ideologies. The approach taken is one which is defined specifically by new expressions that are combining disciplines. The idea of language is one which begins to move into concepts of how language can be expressed in visual arts, multimedia, dance and other concepts. Integrating this into artistic forms and developing a sense of hybridity allows individuals and the languages to move forward with specific concepts and to create a sense of understanding that moves outside of the traditional ideas of language and into something that is understoo d within popular culture. O’Brien and Szeman continue this concept with the ideas of signs, representation and discourse. The ideas of hybridity and ways in which these theories turn into new expressions lead into different areas of exploration. ... Instead of creating a representation that is based on a medium, the medium becomes a tool that is used with the representation or discourse that is being expressed. With this concept, one is able to combine different types of artistic works to move a step further with the representations that are being created. Critical Insight The concepts which are associated with O’Brien and Szeman are one of the leading changes that are occurring within the arts create questions based on how the popular culture and contemporary art turn into hybrid and interdisciplinary approaches. The concepts of hybridity that come from the main tools recognized by the two authors are only one of the components that are a part of creating interdisciplinary approaches to art. This is further transformed with ideas and representations which are based on exploration. The idea of exploration with the mediums and the arts as well as popular culture, is one of the defining points of art work. Without this, art ists wouldn’t be able to create and express what is needed. The tools discussed then become a way to experiment and interchange the ideas of discourse, signs or language used with the techniques that are related to O’Brien and Szeman. The main concept which is associated with the theories is one which is based on ideas of expression and creation. The most important challenge that is created is one that is based on how art can move forward in both terms of experimentation and in popular culture. Using techniques, such as certain mediums, as well as combining this with different concepts of practices, is one that is now becoming secondary. The question which is being

History of Mexican music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History of Mexican music - Essay Example Ranchera is considered to be an outgrowth of a son. That has been â€Å"A type of song that was literally sung on a Mexican ranch, ranchera originated in the mid-19th century, just before the Mexican revolution†. Love, patriotism and nature are remained to be the most popular themes for this type of songs. Mariachi is considered to be highly popular style of music in Mexico. It consists of â€Å"at least two violins, two trumpets, a Spanish guitar, and two other types of guitars - the vihuela and guitarron†. Norteà ±o is considered to be a more modern variant of folk music in Mexico. The matter is that â€Å"in the late 19th century European migrants brought the accordion, waltz and polka, from their homeland to Northern Mexico and the U.S. Southwest†. Local bands have adopted these instruments and establish a new genre of music.As for the popular Mexican music, there are also a huge number of variations with interesting implications and influence of modern glob al culture. It is possible to distinguish Latin alternative, Mexican Ska, Rock and Pop music as the basic directions of modern music.Latin alternative is considered to be a â€Å"music created by young players who have been raised not only on their parents' music but also on rock, hip-hop and electronica†. The wave of Mexican Ska has started in the 1960s when young bands and big orchestras intend to recorded ska tunes and covers of Jamaican hits. The most popular groups are Dilemma, The Chasm, Xiuhtecuhtli, Disgorge, Brujeria, Transmetal, Hacavitz, Sargatanas, Mictlayotl and others.

Immigration Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Immigration - Term Paper Example America is a country whose growth and development was greatly derived from immigrant communities most of which later became Americans. Immigration has equally been a source of social, cultural and political confrontations that have shaped America. Immigration is of great interest to me because of the immense role it plays in society both negatively and positively. In America, for instance, immigration has been incidental to the development of the country in several ways. Immigrants provided cheap labor during the industrial evolution and early development stages of the country. Furthermore, the assimilation of immigrant communities into the American society advanced the country’s diversity profile. Conflicts created by immigration often revolve around the perceived threat to a country’s culture by the immigrants who are torn between two cultures. Such a concern leads to strife between resident communities and immigrants though most of the conflicts are merely based on p erceptions. According to Carl (45-52) immigration is a social problem because of how it creates tensions and misunderstandings in society. Basically, immigration is a source of social strife pitting resident communities and immigrant communities most of which are based on culture and economic factors. ... Carl (79-81) further suggests that immigration has immense economic implications in society. Economically, immigrants are perceived as a challenge to materials and opportunities, therefore, creating competition for resources and jobs with local communities. Other considerations include crime whereby immigration is often linked to increased levels of crime in the society or sometimes the society may resort to crime as a way of articulating the immigration problem. Immigration has been subject to literary dialogue since time immemorial and many thinkers and scholars share their diverse opinion on the vast subject. Numerous scholars examine immigration in detail evaluating the nature of a problem it presents to society. In essence, immigration as a social problem has attracted the attention of numerous researchers, authors and scholars who examine the issue from different theoretical perspectives. Robert Sampson tackles the subject from a practical perspective by unearthing the recent c onflicts and issues emanating from immigration in the United States through which he presents the prevailing conflicts regarding immigration (Sampson 28-33). In his article, Rethinking Crime and Immigration, Robert Sampson reveals that immigration is indeed a social problem, and it greatly influences the society. The role played by immigration in the political discourse particularly in the political contests has been captured by the author in a very explicit manner capturing the real essence of immigration in America. Though the author specifically focuses on immigration as a social problem in the United States, it is evident that the predicament

Article analysis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Analysis - Article Example arding specific learning needs of students with LD in the classrooms and how they are able to adopt instructions for such particular students in the middle schools .The third question deals with perception teachers who teach mathematics in the middle schools on issues of resources and support for such inclusion by the teachers. The last question deals with perceptions of the mathematics teachers of middle school on issues of preparation received in programs of pre service in inclusion of students in classrooms. The literature background supports the need for the study. This is because there is need to reduce the generalization of teachers who use inclusive classrooms in needs for students with LD. The literature provides an academic analysis of previous research done on the topic on what teachers can do to improve the effectiveness of using the inclusive classrooms and programs for meeting the need of the students with LD. The variables under study were gender of the teachers, educational level, years of experience teaching, years of experience teaching in inclusion settings, number of math courses, number of inclusion- or LD-related workshops, level of support services, Level of administrative support .The variables used in the study were independent variables. They used descriptive statistical procedures to enable in describing the features of the data. It provided basic summaries on the sample used and the measures. This was used to be able to describe what the data was and what the data showed. Some respondents agreed that students with LD should be taught mathematics with general education students however other respondents stated that students with LD should be taught in inclusive classrooms .A percentage of twenty-one percent of teachers agreed that middle schools positively executed the inclusion practices where others were undecided. The responses were varied and indicated that many schools are doubtful the resource room effectively ensures learning of

Best Snacks Problem Solution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Best Snacks Problem Solution - Essay Example The concepts and practices that are related to this are inclusive of observations, strategies and implementation of new alternatives within the company. The plan is also based on beginning to alter the practices and policies for research and development while adding in training to begin altering the organizational culture. The ability to develop this particular plan for Best Snacks is one which then requires movement into the culture and production based approaches within the company. By strategically implementing this perspective, there will be the ability to look into total quality management alternatives. Describe the Situation Issue and Opportunity Identification 1. The first issue is with Best Snack moving below other competitors. It is now slipping past other competitors as well as smaller businesses that are moving forward with new innovations. 2. R& D is no longer performing to the same measures that it did, leaving the product development behind from past years. 3. Marketing methods with old and new products are not being implemented outside of the expectations from the past development. 4. The organizational culture is not inviting in as many new options for product development because of the stability of products that are already available. 1. The first opportunity is to begin working toward innovation through the organizational culture, allowing new options and development to be made available. 2. Ability to increase the capacity for creativity within the company, allowing new products to be developed. 3. More opportunities for employees to change their role while growing an alternative organizational culture. 4. Training and development that will lead to more of a return of investment. Stakeholder Perspectives and Ethical Dilemmas The stakeholder perspectives are currently standing in a strong position because Best Snack has been a leader in snacks for 150 years. This is combined with the strong standing which remains with the company in the curren t position. However, the danger is that the company is falling to other competitors. From the stakeholder perspective, this becomes a threat to getting a return on investment while having the same strength with the investments which they are making. To change this, communication, strategies and implementation to remain ahead of other competitors is required, specifically to begin changing the skills, innovations and products within the market. While Best Snack needs to incorporate the new innovations, the approach needs to be one which is low risk, specifically so stakeholders will continue to invest and see a profit margin. The ethical dilemmas which are associated with the current approach is based on the risks that are associated with the training, development and alterations with the current culture. Changing this too much or taking risks which are not consistent with the needs of the company can also lead to the wrong developments and initiatives and may create a lack of the ri ght approach and investment to the current status. Making sure there is an approach that is consistent and which validates the changes and initiatives will also ensure that stakeholders and others have the right response while being clear of the changes being made. Frame the Right Problem The problem with Best Snack is based on the lack of innovation which is currently with the company, specifically because of the longer period of time that the same products have

Joseph the Favorite Son Essay Example for Free

Joseph the Favorite Son Essay Abstract The story of Joseph is one of the classic stories which portrayed sibling rivalry that was fueled by envy. Joseph’s story can be found in the book of Genesis, the same biblical book where the story of â€Å"Cain and Abel† can be found; another story that portrayed sibling rivalry. At the beginning of the story, it was pretty obvious that Joseph was loved by his father, Jacob, so much that he was given high regard over his other brothers upon which ten were older than him. When they finally reached the boiling point, they originally plotted to kill Joseph but later decided to just sell him to a passing Ishmaelite merchant. He was sold to the Pharaoh of Egypt who decided to make him the Pharaoh’s personal servant. This is where he was able to practice and utilize his gift from God, which was interpreting dreams. Joseph, the Favorite Son Joseph was the eleventh of twelfth sons of Jacob, who was regarded in the bible as Israel while his sons were the twelve tribes of Israel. One day, Joseph had a dream about eleven stars, the sun, and the moon bowing before him (Genesis 37:9 Revised Standard Version). This is when his father, Jacob, realized that Joseph was blessed by God. Ever since learning about that fact, he became overprotective of Joseph, as he knew that his other sons will try to harm him if Joseph told them his dreams and its interpretations. Joseph became his favorite son, and because of this, his other sons grew jealous of Joseph. They started to despise him, and plotted to kill him—except for the eldest among the brothers, Reuben. Jealousy and envy has caused previous sibling rivalry stories in the book of genesis—an example would be the story of â€Å"Cain and Abel†. However, one cannot blame the antagonists for being jealous for there is always a favor or favoritism factor in some of these stories; including the story of Joseph the dreamer. It is safe to assume that out of favoritism comes jealousy, and then from jealousy comes rivalry. The Genesis Touch A lot of themes from the book of Genesis tend to repeat themselves in the book’s thematic divisions—Creation and post-creation (Adam and Eve, with addition of Cain and Abel), Patriarch Saga (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), and The Story of Joseph the dreamer. There is bound to be theme similarities between stories that belong to each thematic division. In the story of Joseph, the themes that can be identified are: (1) Faith (exists in Abraham), (2) Sibling Rivalry (exists in Cain and Abel), (3) Covenant (exists in all stories of the Genesis), (4) Fall and Restoration (exists in Adam and Eve), and (5) Destiny (exists in Abraham). Faith is one of the most recurring themes in the Old Testament as well as in some parts of the New Testament. It starts from the creation story wherein God entrusted Eden to Adam and Eve. Faith was also present at the story of Abraham, whom he acted on a leap-of-faith, dedicated himself to sacrifice his son, Isaac, for God; although, it did not push through. Like in the two stories, Faith is also present here in the story of Joseph. However, Faith here may have been slightly different as it was faithfulness of Joseph towards Israel—Jacob. He was a tattle tale: â€Å"and Joseph brought an ill report of them to their father† (Genesis 37:2). Indeed through Joseph’s faithfulness, it earned him the title of â€Å"Jacob’s favorite son†. However, this did not bode well with his brothers, as it intensified their jealousy and hatred towards him. Sibling Rivalry was always bound to happen. The theme of Sibling Rivalry has existed since the story of â€Å"Cain and Abel†. It proliferated to other succeeding stories, including the story of Joseph. One problem of Joseph that prompted his brothers to despise him was his arrogance. Other than him being the favorite son of Jacob, he did show arrogance in some parts of the story while sharing his dreams to his brothers: â€Å"He said to them, ‘Hear this dream which I have dreamed: behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and lo, my sheaf arose and stood upright; and behold, your sheaves gathered round it, and bowed down to my sheaf† (Genesis: 36:6-7). Who would not be mad after hearing that? This prompted them to hate him even more with his dreams and how he interprets the dreams. However, Joseph’s gift of interpreting dreams was considered as a blessing from God. Through this, a covenant between God and Joseph was created. The Covenant theme has always recurred throughout the bible. After all, it is a holy agreement between God and an individual—usually men in the Old Testament. Like in all stories before Joseph’s, a covenant was likely to be formed through the blessings that the individual will receive. It may have been like a past version of â€Å"the terms of agreement†. Joseph’s gift frightened and angered his brothers, as they sold him to an Ishmaelite merchant instead of killing him—as Reuben suggested. The Ishmaelite then sold Joseph to Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, who made him his personal servant. Joseph was not fully aware that he and God had a covenant ever since he received the gift of interpreting dreams. Even so, he was continuously blessed by God as he prospered and became successful. Then Potiphar’s wife kept tempting him—familiar with the creation story—to lie with her in bed; have sex with her. However, he always refused. This prompted her to accuse him of trying to sleep with her and was thrown into prison. Then he was continuously blessed by God while he was imprisoned: â€Å"But the Lord was with Joseph and showed him steadfast love, and gave him favour in the sight of the keeper of the prison† (Genesis 39:21). These favors made Joseph realize the covenant that bounded him with God. The fall and restoration of Joseph may have occurred during his days in Egypt. The theme of fall and restoration is a theme that greatly comprises the tragedy that occurs to a person and a periodic rise right after. For example, the fall and restoration that occurred in the story of Adam and Even was the temptation up to the point wherein God banished them. Although not much restoration happened, God decided to just banish them out of Eden and start their own life, instead of decimating them. In the story of Joseph, the fall and restoration occurred in two phases: (1) When he was thrown at the pit and sold which later on prospered in Egypt, and (2) The accusation of Potiphar’s wife and his interpretation of the Pharaoh’s dream which earned him an important government position. Upon the realization of the covenant, the second phase took place. The full restoration took place while he became the overseer that handles food distribution and storage. As his brothers went to Egypt to buy grain during the seven years of famine, he saw them and commanded them to return and fetch Benjamin, the brother closest to Joseph, with them on their way back to Egypt. After which, Benjamin was able to identify him and soon their family was reunited. This was the full restoration that occurred after the start of the first phase and the end of the second phase. It may have been destiny that brought them together once again. Destiny is a strong word that has always been present in the Bible. It was God’s will towards a person, especially those whom He has chosen to lead; for example, like Abraham. Combining the other four themes would generate the destiny that God assigned to Joseph ever since blessing him with the gift of dream interpretation. His destiny may have been played out in this fashion: He was given the gift of dream interpretation—the father admires his faithfulness to him and discovers his skill, warning him not to tell his brothers about it—Joseph told his brothers about a dream that intensified their jealousy and hatred towards him—most of them plotted to destroy him, sold him instead to a merchant—he became Potiphar’s servant, who later became his prisoner after being framed—butler and baker made him interpret their dreams, wherein the butler promised that he will be remembered—Pharaoh had a nightmare that he wanted to interpret, so he sent for Joseph and had it interpreted (after the butler recommended him to the Pharaoh)—Joseph interpreted it accurately and was assigned as the overseer of food distribution and storage—With this position, it gave him an opportunity to reunite with his family after disappearing for so long—then the Hebrews were offered a land in Egypt wherein they moved there from Canaan, delivering them from famine (Genesis 37-47). In this process, the four Genesis themes of Joseph’s story were combined to form and somewhat correlate with the last theme which was Destiny. It was by God’s will that his destiny was formed right from the start. Joseph the son, dreamer, servant, prisoner, interpreter, and official Joseph was the eleventh son of Jacob, and he was the most favored among all of his brothers. It was mentioned that he was at age seventeen when he started experiencing these dreams that were believed to be visions of the future. For his father, this was a blessing by God which earned him more favor over his brothers. Other than that, Joseph was loyal to Jacob who was Israel—as the story would mention. His loyalty earned him a rightful place and won his father’s favor. He was equally loyal to God as the blessed gift of dream interpretation tied them together. However, he had a minor flaw when he was at age seventeen. He was a bit arrogant, although he was unaware of it. It may have been possible that he was sharing his dream (Genesis: 36:6-7) to his brothers which he should not have, in the process disobeying their father as he was warned not to tell them any of his dreams nor his special talent. For his brothers, they found the context of the dream as an act of arrogance since it interpreted that they should bow to him. This further fueled their hatred towards Joseph. As he was the eleventh son, it was disrespectful to mention such a thing towards the older brothers. His father loved and favored him but his brothers despised him, that they plotted to kill him but with Reuben’s intervention, he was sold to an Ishmaelite trader instead. When Joseph became the servant of Potiphar, he expressed the same kind of loyalty that he had towards his father; although, it may have also been because of the fact that he was loyal to God as well. Being God-blessed and loyal earned him Potiphar’s favor and made him the overseer of the house who was in-charge of all over that Potiphar had (Genesis 39:4). With all of these blessing come an unfortunate circumstance: Potiphar’s seduction or temptation of Joseph. It was a test that Joseph successfully passed. However, he was framed by the wife and was put in prison. Another twist occurred when God blessed him while he was imprisoned (Genesis 39:21). His prison sentence led him to another circumstance upon which was favorable to him. The chief butler and chief baker of the Pharaoh were thrown in prison as well after disappointing the Pharaoh. This was where he was given the opportunity to interpret the dreams of others, when both the butler and the baker had dreams—which were probably visions of the future. Both ended up looking troubled the next day, hence prompting Joseph to help: â€Å"So he asked Pharaoh’s officers who were with him in custody in his master’s house, ‘Why are your faces downcast today? ’ (Genesis 40:7). In the ancient world, dreams usually need interpretation as they would convey messages that may hold great importance to the person’s life. The two had Joseph interpret their dreams, both of which came true. As the Pharaoh experienced a vision of his own in his dream, he asked his magicians and top officials to interpret it for him. None of them could not interpret the dream accurately until the butler remembered Joseph and recommended him. Joseph was then called by the Pharaoh whom accurately interpreted the dreams. Impressed by the accuracy of Joseph’s interpretation, he assigned him as the overseer of the country—that handled resource distribution, especially food since it will be affected by the famine. Joseph, as usual, showed loyalty to his master and managed the resource distribution accordingly. Reading the story, Joseph had his ups and downs throughout this phase of his life. Joseph’s character developed, evolving and adapting, through these ups and downs until he was able to rise up. Joseph started out as a boy but ended up being a man upon which a country depended on. Adding to his personal traits, it could be said that he was forgiving as he did not exact revenge upon the brothers who mistreated him. Blessings and Misfortunes It could be said that a lot of blessings and unfortunate things can happen to one person. Joseph experienced his share of blessings and misfortunes throughout the story; apparently there were more blessings for God was always with him. The first one among the series of blessings and misfortunes would be a blessing wherein he was blessed with the gift of dream interpretation. It was also evidence of God’s presence in him or with him. This blessing would be immensely important for him, his family, and Egypt later on. For now, it led to his second fortune which was earning his father’s favor and guaranteed his safety through the protection of his father. He became Jacob’s favorite because of his loyalty and blessed skill. However, this led to the first unfortunate event that sent him on a rollercoaster ride. His brothers despised him greatly and plotted to kill him; although ended up selling him instead. He was brought away to a far land, away from his family. Then as God continued to bless him, he experienced his third blessing which was being the Potiphar’s overseer of the house. His loyalty was noticed by Potiphar who gave him the position. All Joseph wanted in exchange for his service was food. Unfortunately, things did not last as he was framed by Potiphar’s wife—because he refused to sleep with her. He was thrown into prison, which was the second misfortune he experienced. However, since God remained with him, he was blessed yet again, giving him favor from the prison keeper who attended to his care and all of the prisoners’. Then an opportunity to exercise his blessed skill arrived when two of the Pharaoh’s officials were thrown in the same prison. Lucky smiled upon him once again, giving him an opportunity to get out of prison. The rest of the events that followed were all blessings that were guised under different forms and circumstances. This proves that his relationship with God is an impregnable bond. After all, he was in covenant with God. Joseph’s Covenant with God Joseph’s skills was put in good use, in favor of God’s plan for him and his people—his family and other Hebrews. As Joseph remained faithful and loving to God, God remained upon Joseph’s side, blessed him whichever place he ends up in and protected him from evil—temptation and harm throughout the story. It was as though they were bounded as one. However, he was also considered as a tool to deliver God’s plan to the Hebrews—who descended from Abraham and Isaac. This was probably an equivalent exchange for the blessings God has given Joseph. It was like his relationship with his father Jacob, although much stronger. A Unified Mood, Character, and theme The story encompasses a fluctuating mood that shifts from happiness to tragedy and back. It seems that the mood is dictated by the flow of events throughout the story, the themes that it entails, and the development of the characters—even the minor ones experience development. Each factor correlates with each other, as if dictating each other within certain situations. An instance wherein the three were unified was the time when Joseph shared his dreams (Genesis 37:6-11) with his brothers, as well as his father. The way he delivered the dream and the dream’s outcome itself infuriated the brothers, who were already envious of him being their father’s favorite. This signified that they had enough of Joseph who seemed to have bossed them around. His brothers developed a more raging spite towards Joseph which later on was seen as he was beaten and thrown in a well, then sold to a trader. Jacob also had a negative reaction to Joseph’s story as it prompted him to scold his son, but later on warns him of his brothers’ intentions. As seen in this situation, the dream caused the theme of sibling rivalry to reach its breaking point, as the brothers plotted to dispose of Joseph. They were able to develop into a character that could not tolerate the favoritism of their father towards Joseph anymore. The mood of this scene turned sour, as jealousy and anger filled the relationship between Joseph and his brothers. His father also experienced a change in character as he became more overprotective of Joseph, scolding him for telling his dreams to his brothers. The mood shifted from an anger to care, in a heartbeat. From the example, the correlation between Theme, Mood, and Character can be seen. It may as well be possible that opposing elements would create unity between the theme, mood, and character. Take the prison scene for example. He was not distraught when he was thrown in prison for God was there to help him. He believed in God whom he shared a covenant with. The prison keeper showed favor towards him—not the typical prison keeper of the ancient times. In prison, he was also given an opportunity to show his blessed skill to two of the Pharaoh’s officials, upon which one died. The setting clearly opposed the mood and the character—prisoners usually degrade in prison. It then enabled the unification of the two with the theme of faith, as Joseph never showed any sign of subjecting to his status. The story of Joseph was probably meant to be a lesson that taught its readers to always remain faithful to God, for He will bless those who are. That may be the message that this story wishes to convey to its readers. For every fall, a periodic rise will follow. References The Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version, Catholic Edition. (1966). London: Thomas Nelson Sons Ltd, for Incorporated Catholic Truth Society.

Essay Writing In Malaysian Schools

Essay Writing In Malaysian Schools Essay writing is a must for Malaysian secondary schools students. There are few types of essays that the students need to master. Guided writing, summary writing and continuous writing are the three main types of essay that are tested in examination. These three different types of writing test students ability to understand and use correct grammar, to apply language skills for interpersonal purposes, to apply language skills for informational purposes, and to apply language skills for aesthetic purposes (Malaysian Examinations Syndicate, 2004). Students have to excel in these three types of writing to be able to apply it in real life situation. Students are assessed on their writing skills in school tests as well as in the national standardized test. Different methods of assessment are used in evaluating students essays. At different levels and tests, there will be at least a minor difference in the method of assessing. In Malaysia secondary school, teachers are not given any specific guides to assess students written works. They assess according to their own methods and experiences. Many methods can be used for assessing students essays. Every method has its own specific guidance and teachers can use them based on their needs and students performance. For example, holistic scoring method is used to assess students essays in a generalized way that is to look at their works as a whole piece without analyzing it in details. Any method is analytic scoring method where teachers look at students performance in details. Both methods can be applied by teachers in classroom- based assessment. In this study, only two methods of essay scoring will be discussed which are mentioned above. Holistic and analytic scoring methods are very different and unique in their own way. Therefore, it is important that teachers know how to use both of them in assessing students essays. The subjects that will be chosen for this study are English teachers in secondary schools in Malaysia. They will be investigated on the ways they use to assess their students essay. A few students from their class will also be chosen to give feedbacks about their teachers assessment. 1.2 Statement of Problem Students essays are marked without a standard scale in Malaysian secondary schools. Teachers score their students based on what they think is good for them. They use mostly holistic scoring method which might not be fair to students (Bloom, Daiker White). The ministry of education might be responsible for what had happened. Teachers mark students essays according to what the ministry suggests. Holistic scoring method has long been implemented in schools. Is it the best method for teachers and students? Some problems have occurred with this method because it is not specific enough. It might also create biasness in the case where students are close to their teachers. This method views the essay as a whole without further analysis on each component. While analytic scoring method views the essay in a more specific way, it provides details for students to be able to know what is lacking in their essays. Analytic scoring method uses a rubric as a standard scale to mark essays. Analytic scoring method is regarded as requiring more work and is expensive while holistic scoring method is considered cheaper and more efficient. Holistic scoring method provides less information to students than analytic soring method. Each of the methods has their own advantages but there should be one method that is more suitable for essay scoring. 1.3 Purpose of the Study This study is aimed at investigating the use of holistic scoring method and analytic rubrics in essay scoring among teachers of Malaysian secondary school. This study is also aimed at discovering the relationship between the two methods. Another goal of this study is to find out how analytic scoring method can be applied in Malaysian secondary schools. 1.4 Significance of the Study Methods of essay scoring have been discussed by many experts all around the globe. It is important in a sense that it reflects students ability in writing essay. The wrong method used to mark their essays will cause their performance to drop. How students write essays, sometimes depend on how the teachers mark their essay. There is a vital connection between the two. Basically, Malaysian secondary schools teachers mark students essay according to what they believe is correct and suitable for their students and the method they use can be considered as holistic scoring method. It is very important that they know a method in specific so that they can mark students essay in details. With this study, it is hope that teachers will realized that analytic scoring method is a more suitable method to be used in essay scoring as it will enhance students writing skills precisely and increase the quality of their essays. 1.5 Research Questions The research questions for this study are as follows: How is holistic scoring method used in marking students essays? How are analytic scoring rubrics used in marking students essays? Why is the holistic scoring method mostly used in school? Why is the analytic scoring rubric rarely used for marking essays in school? How far is it possible to integrate analytic scoring rubric in the curriculum of Malaysian secondary school? CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction According to Normah Othman (2006), there is no specific scoring strategy implemented specially for a classroom-based assessment of direct writing in Malaysian secondary schools. As it is now, ESL teachers currently use a scoring method adopted from the Malaysian Examinations Syndicate. Therefore, teachers can choose to use analytic or holistic scoring. But most of the teachers use holistic scoring in Malaysian Secondary context. Below are the researches done at different countries on analytic and holistic scoring method. According to Alharby (2006), studies addressing issues related to performance assessment seem to be taking two relatively different directions. One if it is to search for the best scoring method that maximizes reliability and validity of assessment. This is usually accomplished by comparing two of the most popular scoring methods used with performance assessment, the holistic scoring method vs. the analytic scoring method. According to him again, the holistic scoring method is usually used with large scale assessment because it is less time consuming than the analytic method; the latter often producing a very large number of responses that need to be evaluated in a short period of time. The analytic scoring method, on the other hand, is usually used with classroom assessments because it provides more detailed feedback on students learning progress for teachers, students, and parents than does the holistic scoring method. In this research paper, the two essay scoring methods will be f ocused on in Malaysian secondary school context. Moon and Callahan (2001) reported that performance assessments have become more popular within classroom assessments for the last two decades. Methods used in performance assessment are analytic and holistic scoring methods. This two types of scoring methods have been concerned by many researches regarding issues such as its reliability (Parkers, Zimmaro, Zappe, Suen, 1998), validity (Kane, Crooks Cohen, 1999), cost (Picus, 1994), and practicality (Baker Aschbacher, 1992). In this research paper, all the mentioned issues will only be dealt as general factors that affect teachers of English in Malaysian secondary context in choosing essay scoring method. Waltman, Kahn Koency (1998) found that the way raters score individual responses affect reliability as well as the validity of an assessment. The two most common ways to score individual responses such as essays written by students are the holistic scoring method and the analytic scoring method. According to Clauser (2000), analytic scoring method is recommended for simple tasks such as tasks to evaluate students ability in spelling and grammar usage. On the other hand, Clauser recommends the holistic scoring method when the tasks are more complicated such as evaluating the adequacy of a haiku. According to Charney (1984), the holistic scoring method tends to be favored by large scale assessment with numerous examinees because it is less time consuming. In contrast, Vacc (1989) claimed that the analytic scoring method tends to be favored by classroom assessment because of the detailed feedback it offers to teachers, students, and their parents in terms of how students performed on t he assessment. Holistic Scoring Method The holistic scoring method was first introduced in 1960s and was known as the general impression scoring method (Hunter, 1996). Similarly, Ojeda (2004) stated that the holistic scoring approach is an approach where graders read to evaluate an essay as a whole-without focusing on or overemphasizing any one particular part or aspect. It started to become popular in the middle of the 70s (Boring, 2002). Huot (1990) pointed out that the holistic scoring method is a technique in which raters are asked to evaluate individual responses as a whole by their first impression without going to specific possible subdomains of the trait being tested. Klein et al. (1998, p.122) stated that this approach [holistic scoring method] is usually most appropriate when the whole is greater than the sum of the parts, that is when scores need to be sensitive to general features of answer quality, such as organization, style, and persuasiveness. In recent year, the holistic scoring method has become even mor e popular, especially with large scale assessments. In Malaysian secondary schools, this method is widely used. Besides that, many researchers have also tried to define holistic scoring approach. White (1984, 1985) defined holistic scoring as a global approach to texts, reflecting the idea that a written text is a single entity. White (1984, 1985) maintained that holistic scoring is preferable because it more closely simulates the impression a reader the meaning of the text as a whole rather than focus on individual features of the writing, such as grammar. White (1985), Weigle (2002), and Hyland (2002) describe holistic scoring as involving carefully selected and experienced raters who use their skilled impressions to give a paper a single, integrated score that is supposed to represent the writers overall writing ability. Powills, Bowers, and Conlan (1979) explained that this holistic approach to scoring essays is an attempt to evaluate wholes rather than parts so that performance on one facet does not determine the judgment of performance on the whole. Different researchers have identified different reasons for the increase of the holistic scoring methods popularity. Some think that it is because the holistic scoring method is the most direct assessment technique (Cooper, 1997); while others think that the reason is that the holistic scoring method is the most economical, flexible and applicable assessment (Huot, 1990; Veal Hudson, 1983). As for White (2004), he pointed out that despite disagreements that arise about the scorings of some papers; this has become the standard way of scoring gatekeeping writing tests in large-scale writing assessments. Findings by Coffman (1968), Freedman (1979), and Breland and Jones (1984) supported that holistic scoring helps focus raters on meaning, showing that holistic raters of essay writing ability seem to attend more to content features than to mechanics and sentence structure. One potential advantage of holistic scoring methods in the assessment of second language writing ability is that they are more practical. Godshalk, Swineford, and Coffman, (1966), Alloway (1978), and Powills, Bowers, and Conlan (1979) all found holistic scoring methods to be more efficient than analytic scoring methods, particularly for large-scale exams, noting the advantages of such an approach in saving time and money. Furthermore, Smith, Winters-Edys, Quellmalz, and Baker (1980) estimated that holistic scoring takes approximately two-thirds the time of analytic scoring. Although holistic scoring method is widely accepted as the most appropriate tool for this purpose, many writing practitioners and administrators reportedly view the holistic technique with reservation (Enginarlar, 1991, p. 39). Hamp-Lyons (1996, p. 234) objects to the single point score resulting from holistic grading, which she claims obscures a pattern of consistent overemphasis or underemphasis on basic language control. Another claim is that a higher share of midlevel papers seem to end up with split scores-scores 2 points apart that must be resolved by a third grader-so holistic scoring may be less effective for evaluating midlevel performances than an analytic method might be (Elbow, 1996b). According to East (2009), the strength of holistic scoring lies in its practicality, which in large-scale testing contexts is an important consideration. Besides that, Vaughan (1991) argues that researchers looking at holistic assessment have often assumed that given a scale that describes the characteristics of an essay at each level, trained raters will assess the essays in the same way every time (p.112). Despite all the strength of holistic scoring, Prior research has established that there are some problems with holistic scoring method. Charney (1984) speculates that scores in holistic readings are based on superficial features, such as handwriting, essay length, word choice and spelling errors. This is in accord with Stewart and Grobe (1979), who concluded that raters were primarily influenced by essay length and freedom from simple mechanical errors (p. 214). Diederich, French, and Carlton (1961) found that judgments made by essay raters under holistic scoring conditions were unreliable. They recommended that considerable effort should be done to establish and maintain reliable ratings. Diederich (1974) claimed that until holistic scoring procedures were refined, the score an essay received could depend more on who the rater was than on any qualities of the text itself. Charney (1984), Gere (1980), and Odell and Cooper (1980) also questioned the premises on which certain conclusions about the reliability of holistic scoring have been based. Charney observed that the way holistic raters read texts may create an unnatural reading environment in which scores might only reflect agreement on salient but superficial features of writing, such as the quality of the handwriting or the presence of spelling errors. According to Hamp-Lyons (1995), English as Second Language writers have a special need for scoring procedures that go beyond just the assign of a single score because one score does not allow raters to distinguish between various aspects of writing, such as language control, range of vocabulary, or organizational control. Hamp-Lyons also pointed out that it is problematic for second language (L2) writers since different aspects of writing ability seem to develop at different rates for different writers. Some writers may be strong in expressing content and organization, but limited in grammatical accuracy; others may have excellent language control at the sentence level, but be unable to organize their writing. All the aspects mentioned by Hamp-Lyons should be taken into consideration when teachers of English in Malaysian secondary schools score an essay. Additionally, holistic scores are not easy to interpret because raters do not necessarily use the same criteria to arrive at the same scores. One rater may assign a score to a writing sample based on content and organization, while another rater assigns the same score on the basis of language control (grammar) and vocabulary. Charney (1984) noted that time constraints affect raters depth of processing. When spending only two minutes on a paper, a rater may assign a score that only reflects agreement on salient but superficial features of writing, such as the quality of the handwriting or the presence of spelling errors (p. 78). In another study, Arthur (1979) found that the holistic rankings of second language learners (L2) essays written by lower-intermediate adult learners were related to frequency of spelling and grammar errors, and that the best predictor of rating was the length of composition. In addition, Raforth and Rubin (1984) found that college instructors perceptions of composition quality were most influenced by mechanics. A single holistic score assigned to a writing sample may thus represent different aspects of writing ability for different raters. In holistic rating of L2 writing samples, a significantly larger amount of inconsistent textual information must be processed in a limited amount of time, which may affect the ratings. Several studies have suggested that a quick holistic read of an L2 writing sample may not allow the rater the time necessary to accurately assess the writing performance. Huot (1993) noted that when the rater is required to read a text so quickly for a limited set of criteria outlined in a scoring rubric, the need for agreement may hinder a rich, personal response to the text, thus affecting the consistency of the scores. Hamp- Lyons (2003) has cautioned that it is difficult to accurately capture the criteria used by raters during the quick read of a holistic scoring. Apart from that, Grobe (1981) concluded from an analysis of essays and correlation with holistically obtained scores that teachers see good writing as being closely associated with vocabulary diversity (p. 85). Sakyi (2001) supports Grobes view that raters decisions on awarding scores are significantly influenced by vocabulary diversity and the extent of grammatical error, but also by the range and sophistication of syntax and the style or format of the writing. Sakyi also notes from his own research that for raters who made a conscious effort to follow the scoring guide, the restrictions imposed on them to assign a single score at the end caused them to depend mostly on only one or two particular features to distinguish between different levels of ability (p. 129). Analytic Scoring Method The analytic scoring method was introduced at the same time as the holistic scoring method (Boring, 2002). Hunter (1996) explained that for the analytic scoring method, the domain being tested is subdivided to smaller subdomains. Each of these subdomains is then evaluated by itself. The sum of these subdomains would, by default, reproduce the whole. Proponents of analytic scoring methods (Jacobs, Zinkgraf, Wormuth, Hartfiel, Hughey, 1981; Hamp-Lyons, 1990; Huot, 1993; Weigle, 1999) have found several advantages to this method of scoring. One of the advantages is with multiple scores; analytic scoring schemes provide more information about a test takers performance than holistic scoring schemes and permit a profile of the areas of writing ability. Analytic scoring methods can provide specific feedback, which is needed in measuring achievement, predicting future success, and accurately placing students (Shaw, 2002; Bacha 2001), as well as providing useful diagnostic feedback on writing performance (Jacobs, et al., 1981; Hamp-Lyons, 1991; Cohen, 1994). In the assessment of L2 writing ability, analytic scales are very useful if a students writing ability is developing at differing rates for situation such as when vocabulary is good, but organizational control is lacking. Hamp-Lyons (1991), Huot (1996) and Weigle (2002) have suggested that analytic-type scales are generally more reliable than holistic-type scales since each candidate gets more than one score, and multiple scores contribute to reliability. Regarding intra-rater reliability, some research has suggested that analytic scoring is more useful than holistic in training inexperienced raters. It is argued that the raters can more easily interpret and apply the scoring criteria in separate domains than the criteria as described in one holistic rubric (Francis, 1977, and Adams, 1981, both cited in Weir (1990); Hartog, Rhodes, Burt, 1936; Cast, 1939; Bauer, 1981; and Weigle, 1998). Cumming (1990) suggested that an analytical scale tends to reflect what raters do when rating samples of writing or other language performance that is consider the individual features of writing one by one. According to Vacc (1989), the analytic technique is preferred over the holistic scoring method when detailed feedback is needed, especially with classroom assessments. Another reason to use analytic scoring method is that it has been argued that training raters to use analytic scoring rubrics is relatively easier than training them to use holistic scoring rubrics (Cohen, 1994; McNamara, 1996). According to Boring (2002), one advantage of the analytic scoring method over the holistic scoring method is that with the analytic technique, it is possible to give various weights to different subdomains based on their theoretical importance. In addition, Kroll (1990) described that it can help meet the need that many ESL learners who fail writing tests have, for feedback on both the deficiencies and the qualities in their writing (Kroll, 1990). There are, however, a number of disadvantages to using an analytic scoring scheme for the assessment of direct writing samples. The primary concern regarding analytic scoring is practicality. As Weigle (2002) pointed out, it generally takes longer to score a writing sample using an analytic rubric since the rater must make multiple decisions for each writing sample and thus must read the sample multiple times. Some critics doubt whether writing ability can be measured by a composite score based on different aspects of writing. White (1985) argued that writing is more than the sum of its parts, and that the use of an analytic scoring scheme may in effect divert attention from overall essay effect. Weigle (1999) noted information is lost when raters revise their scores on the different scales once they consider the single composite score. Raters may also tend to rate holistically rather than analytically so that the rater ends up assigning a writing sample the same score in every domain (Cohen, 1994). An additional problem with analytic scoring and rater bias surfaced in Cummings (1990) descriptive analysis of raters comments. Cumming (1990) also found that both novice and expert raters tended to analytically evaluate ESL compositions on both language control and writing ability, implicitly attributing separate values to each of these domains. Hamp-Lyons (1989) noted another potential problem in the reliability of analytic scoring schemes in that an analytic scoring method may favor essays where performance criteria are easily and quickly extracted from the writing sample. While an analytic scoring method offers the potential of additional information regarding the students L2 writing ability, there are potential problems of reliability and validity derived from the scoring procedures. Conclusion All the researches had shown that the method used by teachers in assessing students essay will definitely have an impact on students writing skills and ability. It is very vital to use the correct method so that students will improve their performance. From all the researches also, it can be concluded that most of them focus on the reliability, validity and practicality of the two scoring methods from many perspective. There is very few or none research is done on the teachers point of view on the two methods. In this research paper, the teachers opinions will be concern as much as possible. 2.2 Definition of terms Holistic scoring method is a method which teachers use to evaluate a piece of students writing for its overall quality. It is a method used in essay scoring whereby a single mark is awarded to an essay from a range of marks categorized in different performance bands in which each band is characterized by descriptors based on the total impression of the essay as a whole. It is widely used in Malaysian schools to mark essays in school-based and public examinations. Analytic scoring method is a method that teachers use to assess students written works more specifically and in detail. It is usually based on a well structured rubric where all the components that need to be assessed are stated out clearly and in detail. This method views an essay in as technical a manner as possible. It is not a common method used in Malaysian secondary schools. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The first purpose of this study is to investigate the use of holistic scoring method and analytic rubrics in essay scoring among teachers of Malaysian secondary schools. This study is also aimed at discovering the relationship between the two methods. Another goal of this study is to find out how analytic scoring method can be applied in Malaysian secondary school. As for the research questions in this study, the first one is how holistic scoring method is used in marking students essays. The second question is how analytic scoring rubrics are used in marking students essays. The third question is why holistic scoring method is mostly used in school. The fourth question is why analytic scoring rubric is rarely used in marking school essays. The last question is how possible is it for analytic scoring rubric to be integrated in the curriculum of Malaysian secondary school. To fulfill the purpose and research questions for this study, only one method is used. Fifty survey questionnaires were distributed. 3.2 Population and sampling The population chosen for this study was teachers of English from Malaysian secondary schools. The population was selected randomly. There was no distinction between gender and races. Fifty teachers from different schools were given the questionnaire. Six schools were chosen to answer the questionnaires. All the teachers chosen to answer questionnaire were teachers of English. All the schools chosen are selected randomly to ensure that there is no bias. 3.3 Instrumentation The instrument used was a questionnaire consisting of 5 sections. The survey is constructed in 5 sections to answer all the research questions. A copy of the survey is attached to appendix A. 3.4 Procedure and time frame This research took about 6 weeks to complete. It started during the 6th week and ended in the 12th week of the semester. During this period of time, the researcher went to six Malaysian secondary schools to give out the questionnaire. First of all, the researcher identified the schools that are suitable for the study. Schools that have at least 8 teachers of English were selected. Secondly, the researcher went to the schools and met with the principal of each school. The researcher asked permission from the principal to give out the questionnaires. Almost all the schools asked the researcher to leave the questionnaires there for collection the next week. The researcher left the questionnaires there according to the number of teachers of English in each school. Thirdly, the researcher went back to each school the next week and collected all the completed questionnaires. Some questionnaires were not collected mainly because teachers were busy with examinations. After collecting all the questionnaires, data were analyzed. 3.5 Analysis plan All the data collected from the survey will be analyzed according to research questions. The first and second sections of the questionnaire are to answer the first two research questions on analytic and holistic scoring. These two sections consist of characteristics on both analytic and holistic scoring. The answers respondents have chosen will reveal their scoring method accurately. Item A1 to A3 will be on analytic marking method, while A4 to A6 will be on holistic marking method. The following graph will present the result for each item. Figure 3.1 . The outline of the presentation of result for section A of the questionnaire Where: A1 I use analytic marking method (mark according to specific criterion) A2 I concentrate on one criterion at a time and read the response specifically for that criterion. A3 I read the response and mark errors in spelling, sentence structure and coherence A4 I use holistic marking method (mark essay as a whole) A5 I read the response and give a mark as a whole A6 After the first reading I assign one band score to the response and confirm this after subsequent readings. Another graph will be for section B. The following graph is to summarize the percentage for section B. Figure 3.2. The outline of the presentation of result for section B of the questionnaire Where: B1 Is the marking scheme holistic guide? B2 Is the marking scheme analytic guide? B3 Do you find the marking scheme easy to interpret? B4 Do you find the marking scheme easy to apply? B5 Do you feel the assessment criteria in the marking scheme provide an accurate and fair assessment? B6 Do you think it is necessary to change the current marking scheme? The third section answers the third research question on holistic scoring. This section is to explore the reasons of teachers who use holistic scoring. The fourth section answered the fourth research question on analytic scoring. This section is to explore the reasons of teachers who use analytic scoring. 7 reasons presented in the questionnaires were according to literature review. This is to find out why teachers like to use holistic or analytic scoring. Two graphs as follow will be used to summarize the result. Figure 3.3. The outline of the presentation of result for section C of the questionnaire Where: C1 I like to use it. C2 It is more convenient. C3 It costs less. C4 It saves time. C5 It is reliable. C6 It provides good feedback for students. C7 It is fair. Figure 3.4. The outline of the presentation of result for section D of the questionnaire Where: D1 I like to use it. D2 It is more convenient. D3 It costs less. D4 It saves time. D5 It is reliable. D6 It provides good feedback for students. D7 It is fair. The last section is to examine the possibility of using analytic scoring in Malaysian secondary context. This answered the last research question. This section is on curriculum of Malaysian secondary school and the use of analytic scoring. If teachers are more positive towards using analytic scoring, it suggests that it is possible to use. The graph used to analyze the result is as follows. Figure 3.5. The outline of the presentation of result for section E of the questionnaire Where: E1 It is possible to mark students essays based on specific features and criterion in school E2 I think that teachers are willing to use analytic scoring rubric in school E3 Analytic scoring rubric is suita